Describe the third-variable problem and the directionality problem, identify these problems when they appear in a research study, and explain why they must be eliminated before an experiment can demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship.
> Explain how an idea for a new research study can be obtained from an existing research publication and use existing research publication(s) to find a new research idea.
> Identify the statistical procedure used to determine a correlation for different types of data and explain what each correlation measures.
> Explain how a correlation describes the direction, form, and strength of a relationship and identify these characteristics for a set of data, especially data presented in a scatter plot.
> Define the goal or purpose of the correlational research strategy and distinguish between a correlational study and experimental and differential research.
> Describe three specific applications of the factorial design: 1. adding a factor to an existing study; 2. using a participant variable as a second factor to control the variance in a between-subjects design; and 3. using the order of treatments as a s
> Identify the statistical analyses that are appropriate to evaluate the mean differences for two-factor designs, and explain the strengths and weaknesses of using two levels versus multiple levels for each factor.
> Explain how a factorial study can combine different research designs (between and within subjects) and different research strategies (experimental and nonexperimental) and identify these features when they appear in a research report.
> Describe and explain the independent relationship between main effects and interactions.
> Explain how the existence of an interaction can influence the interpretation of main effects.
> Define a main effect for one factor and an interaction between factors, and be able to identify main effects and interactions in the results from a two-factor design.
> Define a factorial research design, including the terms factor and level, and identify and describe factorial designs when they appear in a research report.
> Identify the basic sections of an APA-style research article, know what to expect in each section, and summarize and critically evaluate the content of each section for an existing article.
> Explain how replacing the single observation before and after treatment with a series of observations converts the pretest–posttest design into a quasi-experimental time-series design by minimizing threats to internal validity.
> Describe the nonexperimental pretest–posttest design and the quasi-experimental timeseries design, and identify examples of these designs when they appear in a research report.
> Identify the threats to internal validity for pre–post designs.
> Define a pre–post design and identify examples of this research design when it appears in a research report.
> Explain how a simple modification of the posttest-only nonequivalent control group design increases internal validity and produces a quasi-experimental design.
> Describe the two nonexperimental nonequivalent group designs (differential research and the posttest-only nonequivalent control group design) and the quasi-experimental nonequivalent group design (pretest–posttest nonequivalent control group design), and
> Explain how individual differences threaten the internal validity of a nonequivalent group design.
> Define a nonequivalent group design and identify examples of this research design when it appears in a research report.
> Explain how the terms quasi-independent variable and dependent variable are used in nonexperimental, quasi-experimental, and developmental research.
> Identify the statistical techniques that are appropriate for each nonexperimental, quasi-experimental, and developmental design and explain the strengths and weaknesses of two-group compared to multiple-group designs.
> Describe the differences between a full-text database and one that is not full text, and explain the advantages and disadvantages of each in a literature search.
> Define cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, identify these designs when they appear in a research report, and describe the strengths and weaknesses of each design.
> Define, compare, and contrast the experimental, nonexperimental, and quasi-experimental research strategies, and identify these strategies when they appear in a research report.
> Describe the different ways that within-subjects designs are used to compare two or more treatment conditions, identify the statistical techniques that are appropriate for each application, and explain the strengths and weaknesses of each application.
> Define a matched-subject design and explain how it attempts to achieve the advantages of both within- and between-subjects designs without their disadvantages.
> Explain the general advantages and disadvantages of within-subjects designs compared to between-subjects designs and be able to decide which design would be better under specific circumstances.
> Describe the limitations of counterbalancing and explain why partial counterbalancing is sometimes used.
> Define counterbalancing and explain how it is used to minimize or eliminate threats to internal validity from time-related factors.
> For a within-subjects experiment, explain how the time delay between treatments can influence time-related threats to internal validity and why it may be better to switch to a between-subjects design.
> Describe how time-related factors such as history, maturation, instrumentation, statistical regression, and order effects can threaten the internal validity of some within-subjects experiments.
> Describe the general characteristics of a within-subjects experimental design and identify these designs when they appear in a research report.
> Describe the process of conducting a literature search, including using an online database such as PsycINFO, and conduct a search to locate current published research related to a specific topic.
> Describe how between-subjects designs are used to compare means and proportions for two or more groups, identify the statistical techniques that are appropriate for each application, and explain each design’s strengths and weaknesses.
> Describe how differential attrition and communication between participants can threaten the internal validity of between-subjects designs and identify these problems when they appear in a research study
> Identify the options for reducing or controlling the variance within treatment condition and explain how each option works.
> Describe how individual differences influence variability within-treatments and explain how variance within treatments can influence the interpretation of research results.
> Identify the three primary techniques for limiting confounding by individual differences in between-subjects experiments (random assignment, matched assignment, and holding variables constant) and explain how each one works.
> Define individual differences and explain how individual differences between groups and confounding from environmental variables can threaten the internal validity of a between-subjects design.
> Explain the general advantages and disadvantages of between-subjects design compared to within-subjects design.
> Describe, compare, and contrast the defining characteristics of a between-subjects design and a within-subjects design, and recognize examples of each.
> Explain when a manipulation check is needed, describe what it is intended to accomplish, and identify a manipulation check when one appears in a research report.
> Describe the purpose for control conditions in experimental research, define the two basic types of control conditions (no-treatment and placebo), and identify control conditions when they appear in research report.
> Define primary and secondary sources, identify examples of each, and explain the role that each plays in a literature search.
> Describe the three primary techniques for controlling extraneous variables (holding constant, matching, and randomization), explain how each one works, and identify these techniques when they appear in a research report.
> Explain how an extraneous variable can become a confounding variable and identify confounding variables when they appear in a research study.
> Explain why control of extraneous variables is a critical component of an experiment.
> Explain why manipulation of an independent variable is a critical component of an experiment.
> Define independent, dependent, and extraneous variables and identify examples of each in an experiment.
> Define field studies and simulation, explain why they are used as alternatives to laboratory experiments, and identify these techniques when they appear in a research report.
> Describe the general purpose of an experimental research study, differentiate experiments from other types of research, and identify examples of experiments.
> Define experimenter bias, demand characteristics, and reactivity, and explain how these artifacts can threaten both internal and external validity.
> Describe how environmental variables can be threats to internal validity for all studies, how some variables can threaten studies that compare different groups, and how other variables can threaten studies that compare scores for one group over time.
> Define applied research and basic research and identify examples of each.
> Describe how extraneous variables can become confounding variables and threaten the internal validity of a research study; identify threats when they appear in a research report.
> Identify and explain the common threats to external validity and identify threats when they appear in a research report.
> Define the concept of internal validity and a threat to internal validity.
> Define the concept of external validity and a threat to external validity.
> Define research strategy, research design, and research procedures, and describe the choices and decisions involved during these three stages in the development of a research study.
> Describe, compare, and contrast the five research strategies (descriptive, correlational, experimental, quasi-experimental, and nonexperimental); the kinds of questions they address and the data structures they produce; and recognize examples of each.
> Describe quota sampling, recognize examples of this technique in research reports, and explain why it is used.
> Describe the process of convenience sampling, recognize examples of this technique in research reports, and explain why it is used and how researchers using this method can limit the risk of a biased sample.
> Describe the four probability sampling methods presented in the book, other than simple random sampling (stratified random, proportionate stratified random, systematic, and cluster), recognize these techniques when they appear in research reports, and ex
> Describe the process of simple random sampling, recognize this technique when it appears in a research report, and explain its strengths and weaknesses.
> Identify possible sources and use them to identify a topic area for research.
> Explain the basic distinction between probability sampling methods and nonprobability sampling methods and recognize examples of these two sampling techniques when they appear in research reports.
> Describe the relationship between a sample and the population (both target and accessible) in a research study and explain the importance of obtaining representative, as opposed to biased, samples.
> Define plagiarism and explain the techniques that can be used to help avoid unintentional plagiarism.
> Define fraud and explain the safeguards that exist to prevent it.
> Describe the purpose and responsibilities of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC).
> Describe the major elements of the APA ethical guidelines for nonhuman subjects in research.
> Describe the purpose and responsibilities of the Institutional Review Board (IRB).
> Describe the major elements of the APA ethical guidelines concerning human participants in research, including no harm, informed consent, deception, and confidentiality.
> Describe and apply the three ethical principles of the Belmont Report (i.e., respect, beneficence, and justice) to a research situation.
> Describe the major historical events that helped shape the current guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participants in research, including the Nuremberg Code, Milgram’s obedience study, the National Research Act, and the Belmont Report.
> Identify and describe the steps in the research process.
> Define an artifact and explain how examples of artifacts (experimenter bias, demand characteristics, and reactivity) can threaten both the validity and reliability of measurement and how they can influence the results of a research study.
> Define a ceiling effect and a floor effect and explain how they can interfere with measurement.
> Identify the three modalities of measurement and explain the strengths and weaknesses of each.
> Compare and contrast the four scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) and identify examples of each.
> Distinguish between science and pseudoscience.
> Define the reliability of measurement and explain why and how it is measured.
> Explain what it means to say that the scientific method is empirical, public, and objective.
> Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction.
> Define induction and deduction and explain the role of each in the scientific method.
> Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method.
> Compare and contrast the nonscientific methods for knowing or acquiring knowledge (tenacity, intuition, authority, the rational method, and the empirical method). Identify an example and explain the limitations of each method.
> A researcher studying cyberbullying among middle-school students interviews a group of students from a local middle school about their cyberbullying experiences. For this study, identify the target population, the accessible population, and the sample.
> Suppose you are planning a research study in which you intend to manipulate the participants’ moods; that is, you plan to create a group of happy people and a group of sad people. For example, one group will spend the first 10 minutes of the experiment l
> Using PsycINFO (or a similar database), find research articles on how background music influences mood. Print out the Detailed Record (including the abstract) for one research article on this topic.
> Using PsycINFO (or a similar database), find five articles on the topic of preschool daycare and social anxiety. Print out a copy of the Record List page.
> Hypothetical concepts, such as honesty, are variables that cannot be observed or measured directly and, therefore, require operational definitions. a. Describe one procedure that might be used to measure honesty. b. Use the procedure you described in (
> Define the validity of measurement and explain why and how it is measured.
> Make a list of five ideas for a general research topic that interests you. For each, identify the source of the idea.
> Describe how some behaviors can be explained by clichés, such as “You can’t teach an old dog new tricks” or “You can’t make an omelet without breaking eggs.”
> Describe how the reliability of a personality test could be established using the results from a correlational study.
> Suppose that there is a negative relationship between grade point average and the number of hours spent playing video games for high school boys. What grades would you predict for boys who spend more than the average amount of time playing video games?
> Describe how the concept of participant reactivity might explain why a person’s behavior in a group of strangers is different from a person’s behavior with friends.
> A researcher has a sample of 30 rats that are all cloned from the same source. The 30 rats are genetically identical and have been raised in exactly the same environment since birth. The researcher conducts an experiment, randomly assigning 10 of the clo
